The diplomatic relationship between the United States and Egypt dates back to 1922, following Egypt’s independence from British control (U.S. Department of State, 2022). Over the past century, this relationship has evolved into a strategic partnership underscored by mutual interests in mutual regional stability, economic prosperity, and security (U.S. Embassy in Egypt, 2023). Although, many may debate the type of relationship between the two countries; some may categorize it as dependency due to the U.S. being the “sole hegemon of time” giving economic and military aid, (Ali, Hamid & Sulaiman, 2022). Others may oppose the idea adding that such aid is being used to achieve the U.S.’s foreign policy interests at large.
The U.S.- Egypt relationship may be characterized as a cooperation. Although, the U.S. passed a legislation in 1970s clearly forbidding both economic and military aid to any country involved in human rights violations, the U.S. is believed to have rarely punished human rights offenders, particularly if the aid receiving governments are key regional allies vital for safeguarding its foreign policy goals in the region, (Ali, Hamid & Sulaiman, 2022), which may have been the case with Egypt. This may have been reflected as Anderson (2001) argues that the U.S. turns a blind eye to certain autocratic regimes it is friends with in-order to get their own goals accomplished, (2002, p.56, cited in Ali, Hamid & Sulaiman, 2022). Even though, Egypt scores high on the Political Terror Scale (PTS), scoring between 3 points to 5 points since 1998 until today, Egypt remains the second largest recipient of the U.S. military aid after Israel, (Human Rights Watch, 2024), with an average of $ 2 billion in economic and foreign military assistance per year from the USA since 1979, (American Chamber of Commerce in Egypt, 2024). Moreover, David Forsythe (2007) adds that’s the U.S. at times undergoes a “conflict” between its commitment to human values and its exercise of power for other interests, (Atanda, 2016).
Cooperation as a Dominant Feature
The U.S. and Egypt maintain robust cooperation primarily in military affairs, regional stability, counterterrorism, economic engagement, and cultural exchanges. Central to their military collaboration is the significant U.S. Foreign Military Financing (FMF), averaging around $1.3 billion annually, which enhances Egypt’s military capabilities and enables joint military exercises such as “Bright Star” (Sharp, 2009; U.S. Embassy in Egypt, 2023).
Egypt plays a critical role in regional security due to its large population, its leading role in the Arab World for decades wielding soft power and through its geo- strategic political location, particularly its control over the Suez Canal, an essential route for global commerce and strategic military operations (Embassy of Egypt, n.d.) making Egypt a keystone to access to oil, security of Israel and achieving stability in the Middle East at large. Moreover, the U.S.-Egypt security partnership extends to joint initiatives in counterterrorism, particularly addressing threats in the Sinai Peninsula and combating broader regional terrorism (Sharp, 2009). Diplomatic cooperation is also notable, especially concerning the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Egypt’s mediation efforts have been instrumental, particularly since the 1979 Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty, being on of the most important diplomatic accomplishments of Arab-Israeli peace, marking it as a key partner in promoting regional peace and stability (Embassy of Egypt, n.d.).
Furthermore, economic cooperation is another cornerstone of the bilateral relationship. The U.S. is a significant trade partner for Egypt, with bilateral trade reaching $9.1 billion in 2021 (U.S. Department of State, 2022). The Qualifying Industrial Zones (QIZ) program, enabling duty-free exports from Egypt to the U.S., exemplifies this partnership, fostering economic integration within the region (U.S. Embassy in Egypt, 2023). Culturally, extensive educational and people-to-people exchanges reinforce mutual understanding, with thousands of Egyptians participating annually in various exchange programs sponsored by the U.S. government (U.S. Embassy in Egypt, 2023).
Elements of Dependency
Despite extensive cooperation, Egypt’s relationship with the United States also reflects a significant degree of dependency, particularly on military and economic assistance. Since 1978, Egypt has received over $50 billion in military and $30 billion in economic aid from the U.S. (U.S. Department of State, 2022). This aid has considerably influenced Egypt’s military and economic structures, indicating a dependency that raises concerns about Egypt’s autonomy, especially when aid conditions are imposed (Sharp, 2009).
Instances of U.S. aid suspension, such as following the 2013 military ouster of President Mohamed Morsi, underscore Egypt’s vulnerability to shifts in U.S. policy, highlighting its dependency (Freedom House, 2022). Though aid was restored, the incident demonstrated Egypt’s reliance on U.S. support for military operations and economic stability.
Furthermore, economically, U.S. aid is instrumental in infrastructure development, telecommunications expansion, and supporting Egyptian smallholder farmers, illustrating further economic dependency (U.S. Department of State, 2022).
Human Rights and Governance: A Source of Tension
The U.S.-Egypt relationship is complicated by significant tensions over human rights and democratic governance. Although, the U.S. passed a legislation in 1970s clearly forbidding both economic and military aid to any country involved in human rights violations, however, the U.S. may turn a blind eye or limit economic aid, but not military aid if the aid receiving governments are key regional allies vital for safeguarding its foreign policy goals in the region, (Ali, Hamid & Sulaiman, 2022). This may have been the case since post the 9-11 events and especially under President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi, who has increasingly restricted political freedoms, media independence, and civil liberties (Freedom House, 2022). Which has been obvious where the U.S. government frequently voiced concerns over Egypt’s human rights record in-light of; abuses by police and security forces in prisons, freedom of expression, freedom of association and attacks on human rights defenders, trials and due processes, economic and social rights, sexual orientation and gender identity, and refugee and asylum seekers; reflecting a point of strain in bilateral relations, particularly under the Biden administration (U.S. Embassy in Egypt, 2023). Leading the U.S. to occasionally withhold portions of its aid as leverage to encourage reforms, underscoring that cooperation in the security and military realms does not entirely overshadow U.S. concerns over governance issues (Freedom House, 2022). This was clearly recognizable especially during fiscal years 2019- 2023, where the Biden administration has partially withheld military assistance from Egypt for not meeting certain human rights benchmarks and criteria as per the U.S.’s annual human rights assessment, (Human Rights Watch, 2024). Showing that the U.S. military and economic aid are based on specific benchmarks; reflecting a correlation between the annual human rights report and the provided aid.
The aid is either released to Egypt’s Federal Reserve account if the human rights progress is certified; or a national security waiver is issued in the terms of not certifying progress; while aid may be withheld and either returned to the treasury or reprogrammed if no progress is certified, (Binder & Cole, 2023). However, in 2024 Secretary of State, Antony Blinken waived conditions due to the U.S. national security interest and in recognition to Egypt’s contribution in advancing regional peace, (Human Rights Watch, 2024).
Although, the U.S. may be in favor of a more democratic and embracing human rights Egypt, Atanda (2016) argues that on the other hand, Egypt’s military, which have been unreceptive of good governance practice since 1952, may be a potential beneficial alley to the U.S.’s short term goals.
The Future of U.S.-Egypt Relations
The bilateral relationship is likely to maintain its cooperative nature due to mutual strategic interests. However, Egypt’s efforts to diversify international alliances, increasing cooperation with Russia, China, and Gulf countries, could moderately reduce its dependence on the U.S. (Springborg, 2017). For the relationship to remain robust, the U.S. might continue to balance its strategic security interests with persistent advocacy for political reforms and improved governance in Egypt (Sharp, 2009).
Conclusion
The U.S.-Egypt relationship remains primarily cooperative with notable elements of dependency, especially concerning military aid and economic assistance. While robust military, economic, and cultural ties solidify the partnership, the underlying issues of governance and human rights pose persistent challenges. How the two nations navigate these tensions and dependencies will significantly shape the future trajectory of their relationship.
References
Ali, M. Hamid,M. & Sulaiman, S. (2022). US Aid to Egypt: The Challenge of Balancing National Interest and Human Rights. Review of Human Rights.
Atanda, O. (2016) Aiding and Abetting Egypt: the impact of U.S. foreign aid on human rights conditions in Egypt from 2001-2010.
Binder, S. & Cole, S. (2023). Human Rights Conditions on U.S. Military Aid to Egypt under the Biden Administration. Middle East Democracy Center. https://mideastdc.org/publication/human-rights-conditions-on-u-s-military-aid-to-egypt-under-the-biden-administration/
Embassy of Egypt. (n.d.). Egypt and the U.S.: A strategic relationship (Fact Sheet). Embassy of Egypt. Retrieved February27, 2025, from https://www.egyptembassy.net/media/FACT-SHEET_EGYPT-AND-THE-U.S.-A-STRATEGIC-RELATIONSHIP.pdf
Freedom House. (2022). Freedom in the World 2022: Egypt Report. Washington, DC.
Human Rights Watch. (2024). Egypt: US Waives Human Rights Conditions on Military Aid.
https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/09/13/egypt-us-waives-human-rights-conditions-military-aid
Sharp, J. M., & Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service. (2009, Sep). Egypt: Background and US relations. Congressional Research Service, the Library of Congress.
Springborg, R. (2017). Egypt’s economic transition: challenges and prospects. Combining economic and political development, 184-210.
U.S. Department of State. (2022). U.S. relations with Egypt. U.S. Department of State. Retrieved February27, 2025, from https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-egypt/
U.S. Embassy in Egypt. (2023). The U.S.-Egypt relationship. U.S. Embassy & Consulate in Egypt. Retrieved February27, 2025, from https://eg.usembassy.gov/the-u-s-egypt-relationship/